Who owns Soviet rock heritage? More than three decades after Viktor Tsoi’s death, memorial walls, monuments, and commemorative sites across the post-Soviet space reveal how cultural heritage is continually created, contested, and reinterpreted through struggles over memory, identity, and political belonging.
Wem gehört das Erbe des sowjetischen Rock? Mehr als drei Jahrzehnte nach Viktor Tsois Tod zeigen Gedenkmauern, Denkmäler und Erinnerungsorte im gesamten postsowjetischen Raum, wie kulturelles Erbe durch Auseinandersetzungen um Erinnerung, Identität und politische Zugehörigkeit ständig neu geschaffen, umkämpft und neu interpretiert wird.
In the post-Soviet space, the legacy of Soviet rock music has become increasingly visible – and increasingly contested. Walls covered in graffiti, memorial plaques, monuments, guided tours, exhibitions, and fan gatherings have transformed musicians of the late Soviet era into objects of cultural heritage. Yet these commemorative practices are more than nostalgia. They have become sites where questions of memory, identity, and political belonging are actively negotiated.
The case of Viktor Tsoi – leader of the legendary Soviet rock band Kino – offers a particularly revealing lens through which to examine these dynamics. Since Tsoi’s death in 1990, fans have created a remarkable transnational network of memorial sites stretching across Belarus, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Russia, and Ukraine. More than three decades later, these sites continue to attract visitors and generate new meanings. At the same time, they have become focal points for debates about the place of Soviet cultural heritage in societies that are increasingly divided by competing memory regimes, geopolitical conflicts, and processes of decolonization.
In heritage studies, scholars understand heritage not as a fixed collection of valuable objects but as a process through which societies decide what should be remembered, preserved, and publicly displayed. Heritage is therefore always political. It raises questions of authority, participation, and ownership: Who has the right to define cultural value? Which pasts deserve preservation? And who controls public memory? The commemorative practices surrounding Viktor Tsoi demonstrate that these questions remain particularly contentious when the past in question is both shared and politically contested.
From Soviet Rock to Cultural Heritage
Soviet rock emerged during the 1970s and 1980s within a semi-legal cultural environment shaped by censorship, informal recording networks, and institutions such as rock clubs. In cities like Leningrad (later St. Petersburg), Moscow, and Sverdlovsk (later Ekaterinburg), it developed through dense networks of musicians, organizers, journalists, and fans. By the late 1980s, musicians such as Viktor Tsoi had become cultural icons. Songs like Peremen (“Changes”) and Gruppa krovi (“Blood Type”) captured the atmosphere of late Soviet transformation and quickly acquired political and generational significance.

Tsoi’s sudden death in a car accident near Jūrmala in August 1990 at the age of 28 triggered an immediate wave of public mourning. Fans created spontaneous memorials across the Soviet Union: walls covered in inscriptions, informal shrines, commemorative gatherings, and anniversary rituals. These practices emerged at precisely the moment when the Soviet state itself was collapsing. As a result, Tsoi memorials became associated not only with musical memory but also with experiences of political rupture and transition. Over time, however, these vernacular forms of remembrance gradually attracted the attention of municipal authorities, cultural institutions, and tourism industries. This transition from informal memory to institutionalized heritage has generated numerous conflicts, particularly around questions of control and ownership.
Moscow: The Tsoi Wall as a Site of Conflict
The most famous example is the Tsoi Wall on Moscow’s Arbat Street. Covered in graffiti, drawings, signatures, and offerings, it remains an active place of gathering and commemoration. The wall’s openness is central to its significance. Visitors are expected to participate materially by adding inscriptions or interacting with existing ones. Yet this openness also makes the site vulnerable to intervention.

Over the past two decades, the wall has repeatedly become the object of conflicts between fans, city authorities, artists, and political groups. In 2009, Moscow authorities proposed “restoring” the wall as part of a reconstruction project on Arbat Street. The plan would have replaced much of its vernacular character with a more controlled memorial format, prompting protests from fans and local residents.
The wall has also acquired political significance beyond music itself. Since the 2010s, Peremen has become closely associated with protest cultures in Russia, while the wall’s central location has transformed it into a visible platform for oppositional expression. However, more recently, Tsoi’s image has been incorporated into official patriotic narratives. State-supported exhibitions and new monuments increasingly present him as part of Russia’s national cultural canon.
At the same time, the Tsoi Wall continues to resist full institutional institutionalisation. In 2025, municipal workers again attempted to “restore” the site by replacing much of the graffiti with an official portrait of Tsoi. Fans immediately repainted the wall. This recurring cycle of erasure and re-inscription demonstrates that the wall functions not as a static monument but as an ongoing process of material participation.

Belarus: Protest, Risk, and Urban Space
In Belarus, Tsoi memorials have become deeply intertwined with political protest. The Tsoi Wall in Minsk, established shortly after the musician’s death, has repeatedly been monitored, restricted, or partially dismantled by authorities.
The political significance of Tsoi’s legacy intensified during the “silent protests” of 2011 and especially during the protests of 2020–2021. During these events, Peremen functioned as an unofficial protest anthem. It was played from mobile phones, car speakers, and apartment windows during demonstrations. Since then, the Tsoi Wall has remained an important spot for fans, but it is under camera surveillance.

One of the most famous protest locations became the so-called “Square of Change” in Minsk – a residential courtyard named after Tsoi’s song. Decorated with murals and protest symbols, the courtyard hosted concerts, discussions, and acts of collective solidarity.
Soviet rock heritage thus became both an infrastructure of protest and an infrastructure of risk. Walls, courtyards, songs, and gathering places enabled political communication and collective identity, while simultaneously attracting increased state surveillance and persecution. Authorities treated these sites not merely as cultural objects but as politically dangerous spaces.
Kazakhstan and Latvia: Between Heritage and Belonging
Kazakhstan and Latvia highlight another important dimension of Soviet rock heritage: the place of Russian-language popular music in societies that are actively redefining their relationships with the Soviet past. Unlike Russia and Belarus, where Tsoi’s memory is closely intertwined with contemporary political conflicts, these cases raise broader questions about cultural ownership, linguistic heritage, and belonging. They demonstrate that Soviet rock cannot be understood simply as “Russian culture.” Instead, it occupies an ambiguous position between national, Soviet, and transnational forms of cultural memory.
In Kazakhstan, the commemoration of Viktor Tsoi has largely taken the form of institutionalized memorialization. In 2018, a monument to Tsoi was unveiled in Almaty at the site where scenes from Rashid Nugmanov’s film Igla (The Needle; 1988), starring Tsoi, were filmed. The monument has become a place of pilgrimage where visitors leave flowers, sing songs, and gather on anniversaries. Yet its significance extends beyond the memory of a single musician. Tsoi occupies a distinctive position within Kazakhstan’s cultural landscape: he is remembered simultaneously as a Soviet rock icon, a figure connected to the history of Kazakh cinema, and a symbol of a shared cultural space that transcends contemporary national borders.

A different dynamic can be observed in Latvia. Here, the central commemorative site is the monument near Jūrmala marking the location of Tsoi’s fatal car accident. Unlike highly visible urban memorials, this roadside monument has largely been maintained through transnational fan initiatives rather than state institutions. Fans from Latvia, Estonia, and other post-Soviet countries continue to visit the site, organize commemorative events, and participate in restoration projects. The Latvian case foregrounds a less spectacular but no less political dimension of heritage conflict: not open confrontation over symbolic meaning, but ongoing struggles over who is willing and able to care for material traces of a contested past.

Ukraine and the Politics of Translation
Ukraine presents perhaps the most complex case. During the Euromaidan protests in 2013, Peremen was widely performed both in Russian and in Ukrainian translation. At the same time, the political context after Russia’s full-scale invasion in 2022 has profoundly transformed perceptions of Soviet and Russian-language cultural symbols.
Memorials associated with Tsoi still exist in cities such as Kyiv, Dnipro, Kharkiv, and Odessa, but they have become sensitive sites. In Kyiv, the so-called “Tsoi Tree,” associated with the filming of a 1980s movie featuring Tsoi, was officially protected as a natural monument in 2020. Yet after 2022, commemorative plaques were removed, and gatherings around the site became more politically contentious.

Heritage as Materialized Conflict
The story of Soviet rock heritage demonstrates that the value of the past is never fixed. It emerges through ongoing struggles over memory, participation, and ownership. Walls, monuments, songs, and memorial sites become meaningful not because they preserve an uncontested past, but because different actors continually invest them with new interpretations and political significance.
The case of Viktor Tsoi reveals how a shared Soviet cultural legacy continues to circulate across national borders even as those borders become extremely politically charged. More than three decades after his death, the conflicts surrounding Tsoi’s memorials remind us that heritage is not simply inherited from the past. It is continually made, contested, and remade in the present.
Literature
Basik, S. (2023). “Vernacular Place Name as a Cultural Arena of Urban Place-Making and Symbolic Resistance in Minsk, Belarus,” Urban Geography, 44(8), 1825–1832.
Bennett, A., & Janssen, S. (eds.) (2019). Popular Music, Cultural Memory, and Heritage. London: Routledge.
Brandellero, A., & Janssen, S. (2014). “Popular Music as Cultural Heritage: Scoping Out the Field of Practice.” International Journal of Heritage Studies, 20(3), 224–240.
Cushman, T. (1995). Notes from Underground: Rock Music Counterculture in Russia. Albany: SUNY Press.
Hansen, A., Rogatchevski, A., Steinholt, Y., Wickström D.-E. (2019) A War of Songs: Popular Music and Recent Russia-Ukraine Relations. Stuttgart: ibidem-Verlag.
Robertson, I. (ed.) (2016). Heritage from Below. London: Routledge.
Smith, L. (2006). Uses of Heritage. London: Routledge.
Zaporozhets, O., & Kolesnik, A. (2020). “Music Geography in Russia: Non-Auratic Places and Institutionalization ‘in Becoming’,” Journal of Cultural Geography, 37(1), 1–25.
Title picture: Tsoi Wall in Moscow with a mosaic of Tsoi, June 2017 (photo by the author).





































